Definitions

Autism (as defined by IDEA) means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects educational performance. Characteristics often associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to changes in daily routines or the environment, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term autism does not apply if the child's educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has emotional disturbance. A child who shows the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria above are satisfied.

Deaf-Blindness (as defined by IDEA) means concomitant [simultaneous] hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.
Deafness (as defined by IDEA) means a hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

Developmental Delay occurs when a child's development progresses at a slower rate than most children. This is often seen as a delayed achievement of one or more of a child’s milestones. A developmental delay can affect a child’s physical development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, or adaptive development

Dyslexia is the inability to attain language skills proportionate with their intellectual ability. The students face problems arise in the area of processing information and having the ability to reproduce it in an understandable fashion. Individuals having dyslexia may demonstrate problems in any of the areas of reading, writing, spelling, or math calculations.

Hearing Impairment (as defined by IDEA) means impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under the definition of “deafness.”

Inclusion: students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom/ program to the extent possible . Any support services that student needs will be provided by this setting.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ( IDEA) was first enacted in 1975 as the Education for all Handicapped Children Act. It is a comprehensive law that governs the education of students with disabilities. The current version of the law was amended in 2004 (referred to as IDEA 04 or PL108-446). For more information about the IDEA, go to the U.S. Department of Educations’ IDEA website at http://idea.ed.gov/.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): is a legal document designed by a team of educators, specialists, and the child’s parents/ guardians that outlines the child’s learning / behavioral goals and objectives. This document must be updated at least every 12 mths;however, an IEP team meeting can be called by any member of the team at anytime. The IEP includes a description of the child’s present level of education performance and identifies annual goals and objectives along with methods for assessing progress toward goals and objectives. In addition, the IEP includes any necessary supports, accommodations, adaptations and/or related services.

Learning Disabled (LD) As currently defined in IDEA, the term refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (IDEA).

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) refers to the concept that children with disabilities should be educated to the maximum extent possible with children who are not disabled while meeting all their learning needs and physical requirements. The type of setting is stipulated in a child’s IEP.

Section 504 is a component of the US Rehabilitation Act of 1973 , and protects the rights of individuals with disabilities in program and activities that receive federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education. Section 504regulatiosn require a school district to provide a “free appropriate public education” (FAPE)to each qualified student with a disability who is in the school districts jurisdiction, regardless of the nature or severity of the disability. This may be defined as regular or special education services. Section 504 does require development of a plan, usually referred to as a 504 plan, although this written document is not mandated. The Individualized Education Program (IEP) of IDEA may be used as the 504 plan. Typically, a student who needs 504 services needs accommodations and/or related services but does not need special placement or instruction from a special education teacher.

Speech or Language Impairment (as defined by IDEA) means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Academic Accomodations for Students with Disabilities

Educators who have students with disabilities in their classrooms may feel somewhat uncertain in the process of identifying students special needs and about the type of accomodations students require to benefit from a non discriminatory and least restrictive learning environment. After having read the article Academic Accomodations for Students with Disabilities, I now realize how helpful I can become as an educator to create conscious awareness to collegues about strategies we can employ to assist both students with disabilities and the school administration to improve services and programs intended for students with disabilities. The author of this article, Barbara Gross offers key strategies for novice and experienced teachers to assist students with disabilities in their classrooms. It also provides the school administration with helpful information to improve facilities and to construct better infrastructures for students with disabilities.

In Barbara Gross' hardcopy text "Tools for Teaching," she starts with an alarming yet realistic statement which is :

Students who have a disability, particularly a learning disability, are a rapidly growing population on college campuses. Though it is difficult to obtain accurate figures, between 3 and 10 percent of college students report having physical or learning disabilities that require compensatory classroom teaching accommodations (City University of New York Committee for the Disabled, 1988; Project EASI, 1991; Smith, 1989). Such accommodations are neither difficult to provide nor distracting to the rest of the class. In fact, many of these accommodations may make learning easier for all your students.

A. Strategies to Assist Students with Disbilities are summarized as follows:

1. Ask your students to notify whether they have any special needs at the beginning of each semester. The teacher can make a general announcement: "Any student who feels that he or she may need accommodations for any sort of physical or learning disability, please speak to me after class, make an appointment to see me, or see me during my office hours." This is a good strategy since students don't feel stigmatized. It would be helpful to to explain the course requirements and identify the type of accomadations the student will need when you meet with a student, explain the course requirements and ask what classroom modifications would aid the student.

2. Remember that disabled students are students first, disabled second. Some able bodied people may feel somewhat uncomfortable when meeting with disabled students, yet Gross expresses that we shouldn't worry about hurting the feelings of a student who is blind by mentioning the word see. Students who are blind "see" ideas or concepts, just as students who are deaf "hear" what someone means and wheelchair users "walk" to class. Gross also suggests that physical assistance should be given upon student request.

3. Be flexible about attendance and promptness to class. Teachers should be aware that students who use wheelchairs may encounter physical barriers in getting to class on time (broken elevators, late van transportation). Other students who are disabled or take medication may sometimes feel fatigued or have difficulty concentrating. Therefore, teachers should try to distinguish students' physical problems from apathetic behavior. (Source: City University of New York Committee for the Disabled, 1988)

4. Be sensitive to "nonvisible" or "hidden" disabilities. Gross identified three principal types of disabilities that may not be immediately visible:
Learning disabilities may limit students of average or above-average intelligence from easily and dependably processing various types of information. The author states that learning disabilities are not a reflection of a student's intelligence, physical or emotional health, or cultural or socioeconomic background. She suggests teachers to employ different instructional modes to improve learning for such students by allowing them to master material that may be inaccessible in one particular mode. Most college students will know which forms or modalities of learning work best for them. (Sources: City University of New York Committee for the Disabled, 1988; Smith, n.d )

Mild to moderate sensory deficits (low-level vision, slight hearing impairment) should be accommodated by providing suitable seating arrangements and proper room lillumination.

Chronic disabilities (diabetes, seizure disorders, cardiac or respiratory conditions, lupus, cancer, AIDS) may interfere with stamina, attention span, and alertness. The attendance and performance of affected students may be erratic, and they may need flexibility in the scheduling of assignments.

Gross recommends that instructors should check with on campus disabled students program for advice and guidance. Staff members can answer questions and provide helpful information about disabilities and academic accommodations.

B. Physical Access for Studenst with Disabilities

1. Ensure classroom access. Instructors should identify buildings on campus taht have entrances that are accessible to students who use mobility aids (wheelchairs, canes, crutches, and walkers).

2. Observe seating needs. Instructors must provide appropriate seating ( desk or chair) that is near the door for students who use canes, crutches, or walkers. Access to these seats should be flat: no steps, no uneven surfaces. Wheelchair users need flat or ramped access, and classroom tables or desks must have enough clearance for them to get their legs underneath. Lab tables and computer consoles should be set up so that wheelchair users can comfortably reach the equipment.

3. Make seating available for students' in-class aides. Students who are disabled usually locate and hire their own aides (note takers, lab assistants, readers), often through referrals from the campus disabled students program. Teacher may announce to the class that a note taker is needed or by referring qualified tutors and lab assistants to students who are disabled. The student and aide will reach their own arrangements about the type of help needed.

4. Ensure access to out-of-class activities. Instructors should sensitive when answering questions of access when planning field trips, assigning lab and computer work, and recommending visits to museums, attendance at off-campus lectures and dramatic presentations.

C. Effective Teaching Practices for Students with Disabilities that take Lecture and Laboratory Courses

1. Follow good teaching practices. Instructors can plan techniques that will help both able and disables students. For example: Open each session with a brief review of the previous session's material and an outline of that day's topic. Conclude each session with a summary of key points.

Emphasize new or technical vocabulary by presenting it visually (on the chalkboard, an overhead slide, or a handout) as well as orally. Describe( verbalize) all visual examples (board work, demonstrations, props). Give students opportunities for questions, clarification, and review. (Sources: McGuire and O'Donnell, 1989; Smith, n.d.; Wren and Segal, 1985)

2. Be aware of students' cassette recorders. Some students who cannot take notes in class may routinely record lectures. Gross suggests that instructors should speak clearly and position oneself close enough to the microphone as the instructor explains what is being written or demonstrated on the board. Students with hearing disabilities may ask you to wear a lapel microphone, linked to a headset that amplifies your voice.

3. Face the class when you are speaking. Deaf or hearing-disabled students who read lips cannot follow the lecture or conversation when your back or head is turned. Gross states that people who are deaf can read only 30 to 40 percent of spoken English by watching the speaker's lips. Understanding can increase through facial expressions, gestures, and body language. (Sources: Fisher, 1985; Smith, n. d.)

4. Hand out written lists of technical terms for students who are deaf or hearing-disabled. Unfamiliar words are difficult to speech read and interpret. If possible, supply a list of these words or terms in advance to the student and interpreter. (Source: Smith, n.d.)

5. Make reading lists available in advance. Students who rely on readers or need Braille, large-print, and tape-recorded books will appreciate as much notice as possible. By midsemester, many students with disabilities try to obtain the reading lists for the courses they anticipate taking the following term.

D. Class Participation
1. Arrange for classroom participation or an alternative activity. Students who cannot raise their hand to answer or ask questions may feel isolated or ignored in class. Gross recommends that instructors should inquire about how these students prefer to be called on during the first private meeting. Some students may prefer to meet periodically with you before or after class to ask questions about course content.

2. Speak to and look at the student with disability in class discussion. In talking to deaf or hearing-disabled students, acknowledge the interpreter's presence but look at and address the student. When talking to a student in a wheelchair for more than a minute or two, it is best to sit down so that you can talk at eye level. (Source: Smith, n.d. )

3. Repeat comments or questions from participants as necessary and, as needed, identify the person who is speaking. The instructor should name the person who is speaking and repeat questions or comments spoken by other student so the student can follow the discussion. (Source: Smith, n.d.)

4. Listen attentively when a student with a speech disability is speaking. Do not finish a student's sentences or interrupt. Never pretend to understand if you are having difficulty doing so. Instead, repeat what you have understood and allow the student to respond. (Source: National Center for Access Unlimited, 1992)

5. Give options for oral presentations, if needed. Students who wish to give their presentation without assistance should be encouraged to do so. But some students will want to give the presentation with the help of an interpreter, and others may want to write out their presentation and ask an interpreter or another student to read it to the class.

E. Acacdemic Assistance: Written Materials and Exams

1. Ensure that students get the academic help they need to succeed in your class by getting academic tutoring aid for students with learning disabilities. Although a student may have an in-class aide (a note taker, sign- language interpreter, amanuensis), these aides are not academic tutors.

2. Make the computer disks available to students. If you prepare your syllabus, assignments, or handouts on a computer, give copies of the disk to students who might need them. Students who are blind or partially sighted can take the disk to an adaptive computer that will prepare copy in Braille. If your campus is networked, you may be able to send the material through electronic mail, eliminating the need for disks. Use a computer or photocopying enlarger to prepare large-type hard copy versions of your reading lists and other handouts for students who are partially sighted.

3. As appropriate, encourage students to use computers. Students with learning disabilities and students with reduced manual dexterity can benefit from drafting and revising their papers on a computer. Students with dyslexia and similar information-processing disabilities should be encouraged to use computers that have spell-checking features or to work with a proofreader or editor during the preparation of their final copy. Students who are partially sighted can use large point sizes on their computer screen and then reformat the text when they print out their papers.

4. Provide appropriate test-taking conditions. Federal law oblige institutions to provide academic accommodations. Some students with physical or learning disabilities may need one or more of the following kinds of accommodations to complete their exams:
An in-class aide to read the test orally or to take down the student's dictated answers to exam questions
A separate room that provides better lighting or fewer distractions or that houses special equipment (computer console, video magnifier, text-to-speech converter)
An extended exam period to accommodate a student's slower writing speed or need to dictate answers to an aide or to equalize a student's reduced information-processing speed
Option of substituting an oral exam for a written exam, or a written exam for an oral exam, or a multiple-choice exam for an essay exam
Option of having exam questions presented in written or oral form
You and the student should agree early on how the student's progress in the course will be evaluated.

F. Assistive Instructional Technology

1. According to Gross, instructors must find out what technological aids the institution makes available for students with disabilities. For example, some campuses have talking calculators, speech-activated computers, Braille workstations, and reading machines for use by students who are blind or visually disabled. One university has experimented with "stenocaptioning," a stenography machine hooked up to a computer for helping students with hearing disabilities read from the computer as the lecturer speaks ("New Technology Boosts Hearing- lmpaired Students," 1992).

2. Make certain that adaptive computer equipment is available for students with disabilities. Teachers should get firthore information and/or advice on the the type of adaptive technologies disabled students need. For example: students with mobility problems need modifications of keyboards, mouthsticks and headwands for striking keys, and floppy disk guides that make it easier to handle disks. For students with visual disabilities, equipment includes speech synthesizers, Braille or large-print output devices, and screen-reading programs. Students with learning disabilities can benefit from special software. Berliss (1991) offers advice and information for making computer laboratories and equipment accessible. (Source: Project EASI, 1991)

3. If you assign films or videos, make sure they are close captioned. Check with your media center about the Captioned Films Program, which distributes captioned theatrical, short subject, documentary, and educational films. (Source: Smith, n.d.)

References as stated in Barabara Gross' article
Berliss, J. R. "Checklists for Implementing Accessibility in Computer Laboratories at Colleges and Universities." Madison: Trace Research and Development Center, University of Wisconsin, 1991.
City University of New York Committee for the Disabled. Reasonable Accommodations: A Faculty Guide to Teaching College Students with Disabilities. New York: Professional Staff Congress/City University of New York, 1988. (Available from Professional Staff Congress/City University of New York, 25 West 43rd St., New York, N.Y.)
Fisher, M. (ed.). Teaching at Stanford. Stanford, Calif.: Center for Teaching and Learning, Stanford University, 1985.
McGuire, J. M., and O'Donnell, J. M. "Helping Learning Disabled Students to Achieve: Collaboration Between Faculty and Support Services." College Teaching, 1989, 37(1), 29-32.
National Center for Access Unlimited. "Ten Commandments for Commu- nicating with People with Disabilities." In B. P. Noble, "When Businesses Need Not Fret." New York Times, June 7, 1992, p. F25.
"New Technology Boosts Hearing-lmpaired Students." National On-Campus Report, 1992, 20(10), 3.
Project EASI (Equal Access to Software for Instruction). Computers and Students with Disabilities: New Challenges for Higher Education. (2nd ed. ) Washington, D.C. EDUCOM, 1991.
Smith, D. G. The Challenge of Diversity: Involvement or Alienation in the Academy? Report No. 5. Washington, D.C.: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University, 1989.
Smith, L. M. The College Student with a Disability: A Faculty Handbook. Sacramento: Health and Welfare Agency, California Employment Development Department, n.d.
Wren, C., and Segal, L. College Students with Learning Disabilities: A Student Perspective. Chicago: Project Learning Strategies, DePaul University, 1985 .
From the hard copy book Tools for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco, 1993. Linking to this book chapter from other websites is permissible. However, the contents of this chapter may not be copied, printed, or distributed in hard copy form without permission.
Available at the UCB campus library (call # LB2331.D37). The entire book is also available online as part of netLibrary (accessible only through computers connected to the UC Berkeley campus network). It is available for purchase at the Cal Student Store textbook department, the publisher, and Amazon. Note: Barbara Gross Davis is working on the second edition of Tools for Teaching.
Publications and Teaching Tips Office of Educational Development UC Berkeley

Taken from

http://teaching.berkeley.edu/bgd/disabilities.html

What is Assistive Technology?

Assistive technology may be defined in different ways. It depends on the audience, the type of technology used, and the experience and orientation of the consumers and professionals involved.

Assistive Technology (AT) is "any item, piece of equipment, or product system whether acquired commercially of the shelf, modified or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities." (Individuals with Disabilities
Education ACT (IDEA) 20, USC, Chapter 33, Section 1401 (25) US)

An assistive technology device is any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Examples include: Braille readers, motorized wheelchairs, and specialized keyboards.

It may also be defined as any item, piece of equipment or system that can help a disabled person work around or compensate for learning difficulties.

Another definition of assistive technology may be a system of no-tech, low-tech, and high-tech tools and strategies that match a person's needs, abilities, and tasks.

A formal, legal definition of assistive technology was first published in the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (The Tech Act). This act was amended in 1994; in 1998, it was repealed and replaced with the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 ("AT Act"). Throughout this history, the original definition of assistive technology remained consistent. This same definition was used in the Access Board's Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards, developed as required by 1998 amendments to Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act.